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There are two kinds of chromatic aberration: longitudinal and lateral. Longitudinal chromatic aberration is a variation in location of the image plane with changes in wave lengths. It produces the image point surrounded by different colors which result in a blurred image in black-and-white pictures. Lateral chromatic aberration is a variation in image size or magnification with wave length. This aberration does not appear at axial image points but toward the surrounding area, proportional to the distance from the center of the image field. Stopping down the lens has only a limited effect on these aberrations.

Spherical aberration is caused because the lens is round and the film or image sensor is flat. Light entering the edge of the lens is more severely refracted than light entering the center of the lens. This results in a blurred image, and also causes flare (non-image forming internal reflections). Stopping down the lens minimizes spherical aberration and flare, but introduces diffraction.

Astigmatism in a lens causes a point in the subject to be reproduced as a line in the image. The effect becomes worse towards the corner of the image. Stopping down the lens has very little effect.

Coma in a lens causes a circular shape in the subject to be reproduced as an oval shape in the image. Stopping down the lens has almost no effect.

Curvature of field is the inability of a lens to produce a flat image of a flat subject. The image is formed instead on a curved surface. If the center of the image is in focus, the edges are out of focus and vice versa. Stopping down the lens has a limited effect.

Distortion is the inability of a lens to capture lines as straight across the entire image area. Barrel distortion causes straight lines at the edges of the frame to bow toward the center of the image, producing a barrel shape. Pincushion distortion causes straight lines at the edges of the frame to curve in toward the lens axis. Distortion, whether barrel or pincushion type, is caused by differences in magnification; stopping down the lens has no effect at all.

The term "distortion" is also sometimes used instead of the term "aberration". In this case, other types of optical aberrations may also be meant, not necessarily geometric distortion.

Classically, light is thought of as always traveling in straight lines, but in reality, light waves tend to bend around nearby barriers, spreading out in the process. This phenomenon is known as diffraction and occurs when a light wave passes by a corner or through an opening. Diffraction plays a paramount role in limiting the resolving power of any lens.

Singlet is a lens consisting of a single element. Singlets are prone to chromatic and spherical aberrations.

Doublet is a lens design comprised of two elements grouped together. Sometimes the two elements are cemented together, and other times they are separated by an air gap. Doublets are primarily used to correct chromatic aberration, spherical aberration, and coma. An achromatic doublet consists of a positive low-index crown glass element cemented to a negative high-index flint glass element. The elements are chosen so as to cancel chromatic aberration at two well separated wavelengths; usually in the blue and red region of the spectrum. Focal length is constant at those two wavelengths and focal length shifts are virtually eliminated across the visible wavelengths. By minimizing optical aberrations, achromatic doublets produce sharper, clearer images with accurate color reproduction.

The Cooke triplet is a lens design patented in 1893 by H. Dennis Taylor, an optical manager of T. Cooke & Sons of York, and comprised of three air-spaced singlets: two biconvex (positive) elements surrounding a biconcave (negative) element in the middle. The aperture stop is just behind the central negative element. This is the simplest design that is capable of correcting all of the seven Seidel aberrations over a wide field of view. It is one of the most important lens designs in the history of photography.

A modified Cooke triplet with cemented doublets used in place of some (or all) of the singlets.

The Tessar is a lens design invented by Dr. Paul Rudolph in 1902 and patented by the Carl Zeiss company in Germany. To quote the patent document, it is "a spherical, chromatic and astigmatic corrected lens comprised of four lens elements divided into two groups by the diaphragm. One of these groups consists of two elements separated by air, the other of two cemented elements. The refractive power of the surfaces separated by air is negative, that of the cemented surface positive".

Sometimes in the literature one can find the opinion that this optical design is an improvement on the Cooke triplet, patented in 1893 by H. Dennis Taylor. Although there is a certain relationship between these two classic designs, this is not true, because Paul Rudolph took an entirely different approach. He had calculated two predecessors, the Protar and the Unar, which were completely different from the triplet. The Tessar contained parts of these two lenses, just like a child has genes from its mother and father.

The ingeniously simple design and the good performance in every aspect of lenses with moderate maximum aperture and with medium image angles made the Tessar one of the most successful camera lenses ever.

The classic double Gauss lens, patented by Alvan Graham Clark in 1888, consists of two symmetrical achromatic doublets with a positive meniscus lens on the object side and a negative meniscus lens on the image side. Derivatives of this design incorporate one or more additional elements and are the basis for many (ultra) fast standard lenses and standard macro lenses produced in the 20th century.

The Ernostar is a lens design developed by Ludwig Bertele, an employee of Ernemann-Werke, in 1923-1924. The basic Ernostar-Sonnar type is a Cooke triplet with a positive meniscus element inserted into the front airspace. The first Ernostar had a record-breaking F/2 speed for its time and was revolutionary because it allowed shooting in low light conditions at fast shutter speeds.

The Sonnar is a lens design based on the Ernostar type and patented by Ludwig Bertele, an employee of Zeiss Ikon, in 1931. The basic Ernostar-Sonnar type is a Cooke triplet with a positive meniscus element inserted into the front airspace. The main difference between Sonnar and Ernostar is not only the greater thickness of the components, but also the smaller number of air-to-glass surfaces, which improves image contrast, especially in cases where the lens does not have an anti-reflective coating.

The Biogon is a double-ended reversed-telephoto lens, consisting of a compact central positive structure with one or more large negative menisci at each end, making a roughly symmetrical arrangement. The back focal distance is so short that the lens cannot be used on SLR cameras, but it has often been used on rangefinder cameras.

The image quality of the Biogon was sensational in the 1950s, and its combination of a large field angle, perfect definition up to the corners and perfect image geometry with almost no distortion led to a real boom in wide-angle photography.

The Petzval lens is a lens design developed by Joseph Max Petzval, professor of higher mathematics, in 1840. Petzval succeeded in creating a lens free of spherical aberration, coma, astigmatism and longitudinal chromatic aberration, and its distortion and lateral chromatic aberration were insignificant. At the same time, the lens had a record speed for its time. This type of lens was proposed by Josef Petzval as a portrait lens and revolutionized the daguerreotype, which had been invented a year earlier: the Petzval lens was 16 times faster than the best lenses of the time, allowing shutter speeds to be reduced and portrait photography to be transformed from a chore into a relatively easy task.

Optically the lens consists of two achromatic doublets with an aperture stop in between; the front component is cemented, the rear one is air-spaced. The field curvature of the Petzval lens cannot be corrected, resulting in excellent sharpness only for the central part of the image and quickly decreasing towards the edges.

Dynamic range is the maximum range of tones, from darkest shadows to brightest highlights, that can be produced by a device or perceived in an image. Also called tonal range.

Resolving power is the ability of a lens, photographic emulsion or imaging sensor to distinguish fine detail. Resolving power is expressed in terms of lines per millimeter that are distinctly recorded in the final image.

Vignetting is the darkening of the corners of an image relative to the center of the image. There are three types of vignetting: optical, mechanical, and natural vignetting.

Optical vignetting is caused by the physical dimensions of a multi-element lens. Rear elements are shaded by elements in front of them, which reduces the effective lens opening for off-axis incident light. The result is a gradual decrease of the light intensity towards the image periphery. Optical vignetting is sensitive to the aperture and can be completely cured by stopping down the lens. Two or three stops are usually sufficient.

Mechanical vignetting occurs when light beams are partially blocked by external objects such as thick or stacked filters, secondary lenses, and improper lens hoods.

Natural vignetting (also known as natural illumination falloff) is not due to the blocking of light rays. The falloff is approximated by the "cosine fourth" law of illumination falloff. Wide-angle rangefinder designs are particularly prone to natural vignetting. Stopping down the lens cannot cure it.

Bright shapes or lack of contrast caused when light is scattered by the surface of the lens or reflected off the interior surfaces of the lens barrel. This is most often seen when the lens is pointed toward the sun or another bright light source. Flare can be minimized by using anti-reflection coatings, light baffles, or a lens hood.

Glowing patches of light that appear in a photograph due to lens flare.

Design with negative lens group(s) positioned in front of the diaphragm and positive lens group(s) positioned at the rear of the diaphragm. This provides a short focal length with a long back focus or lens-to-film distance, allowing for movement of the reflex mirror in SLR cameras. Sometimes called an inverted telephoto lens.

A photographic lens completely corrected for the three main optical aberrations: spherical aberration, coma, and astigmatism.

By the mid-20th century, the vast majority of lenses were close to being anastigmatic, so most manufacturers stopped including this characteristic in lens names and/or descriptions and focused on advertising other features (anti-reflection coating, for example).

Design that does not introduce significant distortion, especially ultra-wide angle lenses that preserve straight lines and do not curve them (unlike a fisheye lens, for instance).

A change in the position of the plane of optimal focus, generally due to a change in focal length when using a zoom lens, and in some lenses, with a change in aperture.

The amount of light that passes through a lens without being either absorbed by the glass or being reflected by glass/air surfaces.

When optical designers attempt to compare the performance of optical systems, a commonly used measure is the modulation transfer function (MTF).

The components of MTF are:

• RESOLUTION - an imaging system's ability to distinguish object detail. It is often expressed in terms of line-pairs per millimeter (where a line-pair is a sequence of one black line and one white line);
• CONTRAST/MODULATION - how faithfully the minimum and maximum intensity values are transferred from object plane to image plane. The lens contrast is typically defined in terms of the percentage of the object contrast that is reproduced. The sensor's ability to reproduce contrast is usually specified in terms of decibels (dB) in analog cameras and bits in digital cameras.

The MTF of a lens is a measurement of its ability to transfer contrast at a particular resolution from the object to the image. In other words, MTF is a way to incorporate resolution and contrast into a single specification.

Knowing the MTF curves of each photographic lens and camera sensor within a system allows a designer to make the appropriate selection when optimizing for a particular resolution.

Lens flare that causes loss of contrast over part or all of the image.

When light enters or exits an uncoated lens approximately 5% of the light is reflected back at each lens-air boundary due to the difference in refractive index. This reflected light causes flare and ghosting, which results in deterioration of image quality. To counter this, a vapor-deposited coating that reduces light reflection is applied to the lens surface. Early coatings consisted of a single thin film with the correct refractive index differences to cancel out reflections. Multi-layer coatings, introduced in the early 1970s, are made up of several such films.

Benefits of anti-reflection coating:

• Increases light transmission;
• Eliminates flare and ghosting;
• Maintains color consistence among all lens models.

Produces a 180° angle of view in all directions (horizontal, vertical and diagonal).

The image circle of the lens is inscribed in the image frame.

Covers the entire image frame. For this reason diagonal fisheye lenses are often called full-frame fisheyes.

Extension rings can be used singly or in combination to vary the reproduction ratio of lenses. They are mounted between the camera body and the lens. As a rule, the effect becomes stronger the shorter the focal length of the lens in use, and the longer the focal length of the extension ring.

A large-format camera with a ground-glass viewfinder at the image plane for viewing and focusing. The photographer must stick his head under a cloth hood in order to see the image projected on the ground glass. Because of their 4x5-inch (or larger) negatives, these cameras can produce extremely high-quality results. View cameras also usually support movements.

The "F" setting disengages the leaf shutter and is set when using only the focal plane shutter in the camera body.

The shutter and diaphragm settings are cross-coupled so that the diaphragm opens to a corresponding degree when faster shutter speeds are selected. The cross-coupling can be disengaged at the press of a catch.

With the cross-coupling button depressed speed/aperture combinations can be altered without changing the Exposure Value setting.

The shutter is fully synchronized for M- and X-settings so that you can work with flash at all shutter speeds.

In M-sync, the shutter closes the flash-firing circuit slightly before it is fully open to catch the flash at maximum intensity. The M-setting is used for Class M flash bulbs.

In X-sync, the flash takes place when the shutter is fully opened. The X-setting is used for electronic flash.

The shutter is fully synchronized for X-setting so that you can work with flash at all shutter speeds.

In X-sync, the flash takes place when the shutter is fully opened. The X-setting is used for electronic flash.

1 second - the slowest available shutter speed.

1/500^th of a second - the fastest available shutter speed.

B (Bulb) - a setting in which the shutter stays open as long as the release button remains depressed.

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Cannot compare the lens to itself.

A technology used for reducing or even eliminating the effects of camera shake. Gyro sensors inside the lens detect camera shake and pass the data to a microcomputer. Then an image stabilization group of elements controlled by the microcomputer moves inside the lens and compensates camera shake in order to keep the image static on the imaging sensor or film.

The technology allows to increase the shutter speed by several stops and shoot handheld in such lighting conditions and at such focal lengths where without image stabilizer you have to use tripod, decrease the shutter speed and/or increase the ISO setting which can lead to blurry and noisy images.

Lens name as indicated on the lens barrel (usually on the front ring). With lenses from film era, may vary slightly from batch to batch.

Format refers to the shape and size of film or image sensor.

35mm is the common name of the 36x24mm film format or image sensor format. It has an aspect ratio of 3:2, and a diagonal measurement of approximately 43mm. The name originates with the total width of the 135 film which was the primary medium of the format prior to the invention of the full frame digital SLR. Historically the 35mm format was sometimes called small format to distinguish it from the medium and large formats.

APS-C is an image sensor format approximately equivalent in size to the film negatives of 25.1x16.7mm with an aspect ratio of 3:2.

Medium format is a film format or image sensor format larger than 36x24mm (35mm) but smaller than 4x5in (large format).

Angle of view describes the angular extent of a given scene that is imaged by a camera. It is used interchangeably with the more general term field of view.

As the focal length changes, the angle of view also changes. The shorter the focal length (eg 18mm), the wider the angle of view. Conversely, the longer the focal length (eg 55mm), the smaller the angle of view.

A camera's angle of view depends not only on the lens, but also on the sensor. Imaging sensors are sometimes smaller than 35mm film frame, and this causes the lens to have a narrower angle of view than with 35mm film, by a certain factor for each sensor (called the crop factor).

This website does not use the angles of view provided by lens manufacturers, but calculates them automatically by the following formula: 114.6 * arctan (21.622 / CF * FL),

where:

CF – crop-factor of a sensor,
FL – focal length of a lens.

A lens mount is an interface — mechanical and often also electrical — between a camera body and a lens.

A lens mount may be a screw-threaded type, a bayonet-type, or a breech-lock type. Modern camera lens mounts are of the bayonet type, because the bayonet mechanism precisely aligns mechanical and electrical features between lens and body, unlike screw-threaded mounts.

Lens mounts of competing manufacturers (Canon, Leica, Nikon, Pentax, Sony etc.) are always incompatible. In addition to the mechanical and electrical interface variations, the flange focal distance (distance from the mechanical rear end surface of the lens mount to the focal plane) is also different.

Lens construction – a specific arrangement of elements and groups that make up the optical design, including type and size of elements, type of used materials etc.

Element - an individual piece of glass which makes up one component of a photographic lens. Photographic lenses are nearly always built up of multiple such elements.

Group – a cemented together pieces of glass which form a single unit or an individual piece of glass. The advantage is that there is no glass-air surfaces between cemented together pieces of glass, which reduces reflections.

The focal length is the factor that determines the size of the image reproduced on the focal plane, picture angle which covers the area of the subject to be photographed, depth of field, etc.

The largest opening or stop at which a lens can be used is referred to as the speed of the lens. The larger the maximum aperture is, the faster the lens is considered to be. Lenses that offer a large maximum aperture are commonly referred to as fast lenses, and lenses with smaller maximum aperture are regarded as slow.

In low-light situations, having a wider maximum aperture means that you can shoot at a faster shutter speed or work at a lower ISO, or both.

The minimum distance from the focal plane (film or sensor) to the subject where the lens is still able to focus.

The distance from the front edge of the lens to the subject at the maximum magnification.

Determines how large the subject will appear in the final image. Magnification is expressed as a ratio. For example, a magnification ratio of 1:1 means that the image of the subject formed on the film or sensor will be the same size as the subject in real life. For this reason, a 1:1 ratio is often called "life-size".

The diaphragm must be stopped down manually by rotating the detent aperture ring.

The lens has two rings, one is for pre-setting, while the other is for normal diaphragm adjustment. The first ring must be set at the desired aperture, the second ring then should be fully opened for focusing, and turned back for stop down to the pre-set value.

The lens features spring mechanism in the diaphragm, triggered by the shutter release, which stops down the diaphragm to the pre-set value. The spring needs to be reset manually after each exposure to re-open diaphragm to its maximum value.

The camera automatically closes the diaphragm down during the shutter operation. On completion of the exposure, the diaphragm re-opens to its maximum value.

The aperture setting is fixed at F/2.8 on this lens, and cannot be adjusted.

As a general rule, the more blades that are used to create the aperture opening in the lens, the rounder the out-of-focus highlights will be.

Some lenses are designed with curved diaphragm blades, so the roundness of the aperture comes not from the number of blades, but from their shape. However, the fewer blades the diaphragm has, the more difficult it is to form a circle, regardless of rounded edges.

At maximum aperture, the opening will be circular regardless of the number of blades.

Excluding case or pouch, caps and other detachable accessories (lens hood, close-up adapter, tripod adapter etc.).

Excluding case or pouch, caps and other detachable accessories (lens hood, close-up adapter, tripod adapter etc.).

For lenses with collapsible design, the length is indicated for the working (retracted) state.

A rubber material which is inserted in between each externally exposed part (manual focus and zoom rings, buttons, switch panels etc.) to ensure it is properly sealed against dust and moisture.

Lenses that accept front mounted filters typically do not have gaskets behind the filter mount. It is recommended to use a filter for complete weather resistance when desired.

Helps keep lenses clean by reducing the possibility of dust and dirt adhering to the lens and by facilitating cleaning should the need arise. Applied to the outer surface of the front lens element over multi-coatings.

Lens filters are accessories that can protect lenses from dirt and damage, enhance colors, minimize glare and reflections, and add creative effects to images.

A lens hood or lens shade is a device used on the end of a lens to block the sun or other light source in order to prevent glare and lens flare. Flare occurs when stray light strikes the front element of a lens and then bounces around within the lens. This stray light often comes from very bright light sources, such as the sun, bright studio lights, or a bright white background.

The geometry of the lens hood can vary from a plain cylindrical or conical section to a more complex shape, sometimes called a petal, tulip, or flower hood. This allows the lens hood to block stray light with the higher portions of the lens hood, while allowing more light into the corners of the image through the lowered portions of the hood.

Lens hoods are more prominent in long focus lenses because they have a smaller viewing angle than that of wide-angle lenses. For wide angle lenses, the length of the hood cannot be as long as those for telephoto lenses, as a longer hood would enter the wider field of view of the lens.

Lens hoods are often designed to fit onto the matching lens facing either forward, for normal use, or backwards, so that the hood may be stored with the lens without occupying much additional space. In addition, lens hoods can offer some degree of physical protection for the lens due to the hood extending farther than the lens itself.

Teleconverters increase the effective focal length of lenses. They also usually maintain the closest focusing distance of lenses, thus increasing the magnification significantly. A lens combined with a teleconverter is normally smaller, lighter and cheaper than a "direct" telephoto lens of the same focal length and speed.

Teleconverters are a convenient way of enhancing telephoto capability, but it comes at a cost − reduced maximum aperture. Also, since teleconverters magnify every detail in the image, they logically also magnify residual aberrations of the lens.